Which reading comprehension is better? A meta-analysis of the effect of paper versus digital reading in recent 20 years

Kill-condition test survived 2026-09-28: inside C3's scope the pooled estimates favour paper (university g = −0.432; time-limited g = −0.468; 1000–2000 words g = −0.391; informational g = −0.218, p = .053).

Newest meta (2000–2022): no overall difference (g = 0.046, ns; I² ≈ 92 %); free reading g = 0.192 (ns); school-age subgroups digital-leaning and ns but dominated by interactive e-books (interactive g = 0.959). No calibration outcome pooled.