Taking reading comprehension exams on screen or on paper? A metacognitive analysis of learning texts under time pressure

Under a fixed 7 min, screen readers scored lower and were more overconfident than paper readers (Exp 1 d = 1.23; Exp 2 d = 0.91).

Under free study time scores did not differ by medium in either experiment; screen overconfidence under free time only in Exp 2; paper-preferring readers did better on paper. C3 weakened 2026-10-06 (time-limit bound).