Syntes: Ackerman & Lauterman (2012) — screen inferiority in scores appears under time pressure; free regulation equalises scores

Källa: Ackerman, R., & Lauterman, T. (2012). Taking reading comprehension exams on screen or on paper? A metacognitive analysis of learning texts under time pressure. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(5), 1816–1828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.04.023

Verified numbers (full text read 2026-10-06)

• Exp 1 (N = 80, between subjects; screen vs paper × 7 min fixed vs free study time): under free regulation no score difference between media (t < 1) and no extra screen overconfidence (calibration bias 2.3–3.2 in the three non-pressured/paper cells, not above zero); under time pressure screen scored lower (t(39) = 3.81, p < .0001, d = 1.23) and was overconfident (bias M = 14.7, d = 0.94).
• Exp 2 (N = 76, time condition within subjects): scores again differed only under time pressure (t(74) = 3.91, d = 0.91); but screen readers were overconfident under free regulation too (p ≤ .001, d > 0.55) while paper readers were calibrated. Readers who preferred paper scored higher on paper even under free regulation (68.8 vs 74.8, d = 0.63, p = .05).
• Reports the earlier counter-case: Ackerman & Goldsmith 2011 (JEP: Applied 17, 18–32, DOI 10.1037/a0022086), with social-science and humanities undergraduates who strongly preferred paper (90 % of the target population regarded paper as better for comprehension), found screen lower than paper under free regulation (63.2 % vs 72.3 %) and equal under a fixed 7 min (61.0 % vs 60.7 %). Ackerman & Lauterman attribute the difference partly to medium preference.
• Not measured: delayed retention; school-age readers.

Role for C3

Limits and supports (2026-10-06): replicates the time-pressure screen deficit in scores and calibration (supports C3 under time limits) and finds equal scores under free regulation (limits C3 to time-limited reading), with calibration under free regulation mixed (overconfidence in Exp 2 only) and a paper-preference exception. Used with Delgado & Salmerón 2021 to weaken C3 (time-limit bound).