Content knowledge and comprehension: A meta-analytic review of correlational and causal associations

Weakened C17 2026-11-04: 55 causal studies; knowledge-building teaching alone g = 0.19 on reading comprehension, not significant (knowledge activation 0.66, difference p = .045); norm-referenced tests 0.21; multi-group designs 0.18; listening 0.13 ns. Correlation knowledge–comprehension r = .41.