The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory

Meta-analysis (131 papers, 607 effects; lab, work and school tasks): feedback raised performance by d = 0.41 on average, but over 38% of effects were negative; praise (d = 0.09 vs 0.34) and threats to self-esteem weakened effects, while normative feedback such as grades was not a significant moderator. Compares feedback with no feedback, not comments with grades. Full text checked 2026-11-09.